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This section will analyze data structures--the mechanism used to manage multitasking environment under Linux.
A Linux Task can be one of the following states (according to [include/linux.h]):
______________ CPU Available ______________
| | ----------------> | |
| TASK_RUNNING | | Real Running |
|______________| <---------------- |______________|
CPU Busy
| /|\
Waiting for | | Resource
Resource | | Available
\|/ |
______________________
| |
| TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE / |
| TASK-UNINTERRUPTIBLE |
|______________________|
Main Multitasking Flow
Each 10 ms (depending on HZ value) an IRQ0 comes, which helps us in a multitasking environment. This signal comes from PIC 8259 (in arch 386+) which is connected to PIT 8253 with a clock of 1.19318 MHz.
_____ ______ ______
| CPU |<------| 8259 |------| 8253 |
|_____| IRQ0 |______| |___/|\|
|_____ CLK 1.193.180 MHz
// From include/asm/param.h
#ifndef HZ
#define HZ 100
#endif
// From include/asm/timex.h
#define CLOCK_TICK_RATE 1193180 /* Underlying HZ */
// From include/linux/timex.h
#define LATCH ((CLOCK_TICK_RATE + HZ/2) / HZ) /* For divider */
// From arch/i386/kernel/i8259.c
outb_p(0x34,0x43); /* binary, mode 2, LSB/MSB, ch 0 */
outb_p(LATCH & 0xff , 0x40); /* LSB */
outb(LATCH >> 8 , 0x40); /* MSB */
So we program 8253 (PIT, Programmable Interval Timer) with LATCH = (1193180/HZ) = 11931.8 when HZ=100 (default). LATCH indicates the frequency divisor factor.
LATCH = 11931.8 gives to 8253 (in output) a frequency of 1193180 / 11931.8 = 100 Hz, so period = 10ms
So Timeslice = 1/HZ.
With each Timeslice we temporarily interrupt current process execution (without task switching), and we do some housekeeping work, after which we'll return back to our previous process.
Linux Timer IRQ
IRQ 0 [Timer]
|
\|/
|IRQ0x00_interrupt // wrapper IRQ handler
|SAVE_ALL ---
|do_IRQ | wrapper routines
|handle_IRQ_event ---
|handler() -> timer_interrupt // registered IRQ 0 handler
|do_timer_interrupt
|do_timer
|jiffies++;
|update_process_times
|if (--counter <= 0) { // if time slice ended then
|counter = 0; // reset counter
|need_resched = 1; // prepare to reschedule
|}
|do_softirq
|while (need_resched) { // if necessary
|schedule // reschedule
|handle_softirq
|}
|RESTORE_ALL
Functions can be found under:
Notes:
Description:
To manage Multitasking, Linux (like every other Unix) uses a ''counter'' variable to keep track of how much CPU was used by the task. So, on each IRQ 0, the counter is decremented (point 4) and, when it reaches 0, we need to switch task to manage timesharing (point 4 "need_resched" variable is set to 1, then, in point 5 assembler routines control "need_resched" and call, if needed, "schedule" [kernel/sched.c]).
The scheduler is the piece of code that chooses what Task has to be executed at a given time.
Any time you need to change running task, select a candidate. Below is the ''schedule [kernel/sched.c]'' function.
|schedule
|do_softirq // manages post-IRQ work
|for each task
|calculate counter
|prepare_to__switch // does anything
|switch_mm // change Memory context (change CR3 value)
|switch_to (assembler)
|SAVE ESP
|RESTORE future_ESP
|SAVE EIP
|push future_EIP *** push parameter as we did a call
|jmp __switch_to (it does some TSS work)
|__switch_to()
..
|ret *** ret from call using future_EIP in place of call address
new_task
In classic Unix, when an IRQ comes (from a device), Unix makes "task switching" to interrogate the task that requested the device.
To improve performance, Linux can postpone the non-urgent work until later, to better manage high speed event.
This feature is managed since kernel 1.x by the "bottom half" (BH). The irq handler "marks" a bottom half, to be executed later, in scheduling time.
In the latest kernels there is a "task queue"that is more dynamic than BH and there is also a "tasklet" to manage multiprocessor environments.
BH schema is:
#define DECLARE_TASK_QUEUE(q) LIST_HEAD(q)
#define LIST_HEAD(name) \
struct list_head name = LIST_HEAD_INIT(name)
struct list_head {
struct list_head *next, *prev;
};
#define LIST_HEAD_INIT(name) { &(name), &(name) }
''DECLARE_TASK_QUEUE'' [include/linux/tqueue.h, include/linux/list.h]
"DECLARE_TASK_QUEUE(q)" macro is used to declare a structure named "q" managing task queue.
Here is the ICA schema for "mark_bh" [include/linux/interrupt.h] function:
|mark_bh(NUMBER)
|tasklet_hi_schedule(bh_task_vec + NUMBER)
|insert into tasklet_hi_vec
|__cpu_raise_softirq(HI_SOFTIRQ)
|soft_active |= (1 << HI_SOFTIRQ)
''mark_bh''[include/linux/interrupt.h]
For example, when an IRQ handler wants to "postpone" some work, it would "mark_bh(NUMBER)", where NUMBER is a BH declarated (see section before).
We can see this calling from "do_IRQ" [arch/i386/kernel/irq.c] function:
|do_softirq
|h->action(h)-> softirq_vec[TASKLET_SOFTIRQ]->action -> tasklet_action
|tasklet_vec[0].list->func
"h->action(h);" is the function has been previously queued.
set_intr_gate
set_trap_gate
set_task_gate (not used).
(*interrupt)[NR_IRQS](void) = { IRQ0x00_interrupt, IRQ0x01_interrupt, ..}
NR_IRQS = 224 [kernel 2.4.2]
Now we'll see how the Linux Kernel switchs from one task to another.
Task Switching is needed in many cases, such as the following:
TASK SWITCHING TRICK
#define switch_to(prev,next,last) do { \
asm volatile("pushl %%esi\n\t" \
"pushl %%edi\n\t" \
"pushl %%ebp\n\t" \
"movl %%esp,%0\n\t" /* save ESP */ \
"movl %3,%%esp\n\t" /* restore ESP */ \
"movl $1f,%1\n\t" /* save EIP */ \
"pushl %4\n\t" /* restore EIP */ \
"jmp __switch_to\n" \
"1:\t" \
"popl %%ebp\n\t" \
"popl %%edi\n\t" \
"popl %%esi\n\t" \
:"=m" (prev->thread.esp),"=m" (prev->thread.eip), \
"=b" (last) \
:"m" (next->thread.esp),"m" (next->thread.eip), \
"a" (prev), "d" (next), \
"b" (prev)); \
} while (0)
Trick is here:
U S E R M O D E K E R N E L M O D E
| | | | | | | |
| | | | Timer | | | |
| | | Normal | IRQ | | | |
| | | Exec |------>|Timer_Int.| | |
| | | | | | .. | | |
| | | \|/ | |schedule()| | Task1 Ret|
| | | | |_switch_to|<-- | Address |
|__________| |__________| | | | | |
| | |S | |
Task1 Data/Stack Task1 Code | | |w | |
| | T|i | |
| | a|t | |
| | | | | | s|c | |
| | | | Timer | | k|h | |
| | | Normal | IRQ | | |i | |
| | | Exec |------>|Timer_Int.| |n | |
| | | | | | .. | |g | |
| | | \|/ | |schedule()| | | Task2 Ret|
| | | | |_switch_to|<-- | Address |
|__________| |__________| |__________| |__________|
Task2 Data/Stack Task2 Code Kernel Code Kernel Data/Stack
Fork is used to create another task. We start from a Task Parent, and we copy many data structures to Task Child.
| |
| .. |
Task Parent | |
| | | |
| fork |---------->| CREATE |
| | /| NEW |
|_________| / | TASK |
/ | |
--- / | |
--- / | .. |
/ | |
Task Child /
| | /
| fork |<-/
| |
|_________|
Fork SysCall
New Task just created (''Task Child'') is almost equal to Parent (''Task Parent''), there are only few differences:
|sys_fork
|do_fork
|alloc_task_struct
|__get_free_pages
|p->state = TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE
|copy_flags
|p->pid = get_pid
|copy_files
|copy_fs
|copy_sighand
|copy_mm // should manage CopyOnWrite (I part)
|allocate_mm
|mm_init
|pgd_alloc -> get_pgd_fast
|get_pgd_slow
|dup_mmap
|copy_page_range
|ptep_set_wrprotect
|clear_bit // set page to read-only
|copy_segments // For LDT
|copy_thread
|childregs->eax = 0
|p->thread.esp = childregs // child fork returns 0
|p->thread.eip = ret_from_fork // child starts from fork exit
|retval = p->pid // parent fork returns child pid
|SET_LINKS // insertion of task into the list pointers
|nr_threads++ // Global variable
|wake_up_process(p) // Now we can wake up just created child
|return retval
fork ICA
To implement Copy on Write for Linux:
| Page
| Fault
| Exception
|
|
-----------> |do_page_fault
|handle_mm_fault
|handle_pte_fault
|do_wp_page
|alloc_page // Allocate a new page
|break_cow
|copy_cow_page // Copy old page to new one
|establish_pte // reconfig Page Table pointers
|set_pte
Page Fault ICA
|
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